ındian

تعريف ındian في الإنجليزية الإنجليزية القاموس.: {n} a native of the Indies, an aboriginal; {a} pertaining to the Indians
Indian: An Australian Aborigine
Indian: Of or related to the indigenous peoples of the Americas (but not the Aleut, Inuit, Metis, or Yupik)
Indian: A Maori
Indian: An Indian meal
We're going out tonight for an Indian.
Indian: Person from India
Indian: A member of one of the indigenous peoples of the Americas (but not a member of the Aleut, Inuit, Metis, or Yupik)
Indian: Of or related to India or its people
Indian: An Indian is an Indian citizen, or a person of Indian origin
Indian: Of, or related to, the aboriginal people of the Americas, the people who lived in the Americas before the Europeans came, as well as the descendants of such people
Indian: {i} resident of India, one of Indian origin; member of any of the aboriginal peoples inhabiting North and South America or the West Indies, Native American, American Indian, Amerindian
Indian: {s} of or pertaining to India, of Indian origin; of or pertaining to Native American Indians, of Native American origin
Indian: Indian means belonging or relating to India, or to its people or culture. the Indian government
Indian: Indians are the people who lived in North, South, or Central America before Europeans arrived, or people related to them. The usual name for them now is Native Americans. see also Anglo-Indian. American Indian American Indian languages American Indian Movement American Indian religions North American Indian religions South Indian People's Party Californian Indian Eastern Indian bronze Eastern Woodlands Indian French and Indian War Indian law Indian Mutiny Indian National Congress Indian Ocean Indian paintbrush Indian philosophy Indian pipe Indian Removal Act Indian Reorganization Act Indian Territory Northwest Coast Indian Plains Indian Plateau Indian Pueblo Indian Red River Indian War Indian licorice South Indian bronze Southeast Indian Great Indian Desert Indian buffalo Western Indian bronze
Indian: Individual of or related to, the aboriginal people of the Americas, before the arrival of Europeans. Also: Amerindian, Native American
Indian: Of or pertaining to India or its people
Indian English: A major dialect of the English language, having many varieties in India, and also spoken by Indian ex-patriates, Indian migrants, and Indian tourists throughout the world
Much more common was the bureaucratic use of Indian English. Below the level of the most highly educated, whose English was invariably modelled on old-fashioned teaching, were the English-using clerks of the Imperial administration.
Indian Ocean: the ocean separating Africa, southern Asia, Australia and Antarctica
Indian Peacock: Pavo cristatus, a species of peacock native to the Indian subcontinent
Indian Peacock: A member of the aforementioned species
Indian Peacock: A male Pavo cristatus
Indian Peacocks: plural form of Indian Peacock
Indian burn: Indian sunburn
Indian burns: plural form of Indian burn
Indian corn: A variety of maize in which the kernels are variously coloured, rather than being all of the same color
Indian elephant: An elephant, Elephas maximus, found in Asia
Indian elephants: plural form of Indian elephant
Indian fig: The prickly pear
Indian figs: plural form of Indian fig
Indian giver: A person who demands the return of or takes back something which he or she has previously given
He was labeled an Indian giver—someone who gives a gift only to ask for it back.
Indian givers: plural form of Indian giver
Indian giving: The act of giving something to someone under the pretence that they get to keep it permanently, and then taking it back later on
Indian ink: a black ink, made from lampblack, used for printing and artwork
Indian mulberry: a small tree of the madder family found from India to Australasia, characterized by shiny leaves, white flowers, and fleshy, yellowish fruit; Morinda citrifolia
Indian paintbrush: A herbaceous perennial plant of the genus Castilleja
Webb and Veikko watched across a meadow of larkspur and Indian paintbrush, and behind them a little creek rushed down the hillside.
Indian pangolin: A species of pangolin, Manis crassicaudata
Indian pangolins: plural form of Indian pangolin
Indian poker: A form of poker where each player sees all cards but his own
Indian red: Having the colour of Indian red pigment
Indian red: The colour of Indian red pigment: a variety of dark, purplish reds
Indian red: Any of a variety of red or purple pigments containing ferric oxide, found in natural earth or made by chemical methods
Indian strawberry: A plant, Potentilla indica, native to India, that produces a fruit resembling a strawberry
Indian style: cross-legged
Indian summer: a stretch of sunny and warm days during late autumn
Indian summer: the late autumn of life; a late flowering of activity before old age
Indian summers: plural form of Indian summer
Indian sunburn: A prank where you grab the victim's forearm in two hands, and twist the skin in opposite directions
Indian sunburns: plural form of Indian sunburn
Indian yellow: The pigment euxanthin
Indian English: {i} dialects of English spoken in India
Indian Guide: Y-Indian Guide a member of a club for young boys and their fathers run by the YMCA in the US. The YWCA runs a similar programme for young girls and their mothers called Indian Maidens
Indian Mutiny: violent action taken by Indian soldiers in 1857 against their British officers, which led to an attempt by the people of north and central India to take back power from the British. The mutiny failed, and the British established control again in 1858. or Sepoy Mutiny (1857-58) Widespread rebellion against British rule in India begun by Indian troops (sepoys) in the service of the English East India Company. The mutiny began when sepoys refused to use new rifle cartridges (which were thought to be lubricated with grease containing a mixture of pigs' and cows' lard and thus religiously impure). They were shackled and imprisoned, but their outraged comrades shot their British officers and marched on Delhi. The ensuing fighting was ferocious on both sides and ended in defeat for the mutineers. Its immediate result was that the East India Company was abolished in favour of direct rule of India by the British government; in addition, the British government began a policy of consultation with Indians. British-imposed social measures that had antagonized Hindu society (e.g., a proposed bill that would remove legal obstacles to the remarriage of Hindu women) were also halted
Indian National Congress: or Congress Party Broadly based political party of India, founded in 1885. The Congress Party was a moderate reform party until 1917, when it was taken over by its "extremist" Home Rule wing (see Bal Gangadhar Tilak). In the 1920s and '30s, under Mohandas K. Gandhi, it promoted noncooperation to protest the feebleness of the constitutional reforms of 1919. During World War II, the party announced that India would not support the war until granted complete independence. In 1947 an Indian independence bill became law, and in 1950 the constitution took effect. Jawaharlal Nehru dominated the party from 1951 to 1964. The Indian National Congress formed most of India's governments from 1947 to 1996, but at the end of the 20th century, its support plummeted. After several years out of power, it returned to government in 2004
Indian Ocean: ocean located south of India and east of Africa (extending between Asia, Africa, and Australia)
Indian Ocean: A body of water extending from southern Asia to Antarctica and from eastern Africa to southeast Australia. the Indian Ocean the third largest ocean in the world, which lies between Africa and Australia. Body of salt water stretching between Africa in the west, Australia in the east, Asia in the north, and Antarctica in the south. With an area of 28,360,000 sq mi (73,440,000 sq km), it covers approximately one-seventh of the Earth's surface, and it is the smallest of the world's three major oceans (see Atlantic Ocean; Pacific Ocean). Its greatest depth (24,442 ft [7,450 m]) is in the Java Trench. Its chief marginal seas include the Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, Andaman Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the Great Australian Bight. Its major islands and island groups include Madagascar, Sri Lanka, and the Mascarenes
Indian Removal Act: law signed in 1830 that called for the resettlement of American Indians to lands west of the Mississippi River (U.S. History)
Indian Removal Act: (May 28, 1830) First major legislation that reversed the U.S. policy of respecting the rights of American Indians. The act granted tribes unsettled western prairie land in exchange for their territories within state borders, mainly in the Southeast. Some tribes refused to trade their land, and U.S. troops forced tribes such as the Cherokee to march westward in what became known as the Trail of Tears (1838-39). In Florida the Seminoles fought resettlement in the Seminole Wars (1835-42)
Indian Reorganization Act: (June 18, 1934) Measure enacted by the U.S. Congress to decrease federal control of American Indians and to increase tribal self-government. The act sought to strengthen tribal structure by encouraging written constitutions and to undo the damage caused by the Dawes General Allotment Act by returning surplus lands to the tribes rather than homesteaders. It gave Indians the power to manage their internal affairs and established a revolving credit fund for tribal land purchases and educational assistance. It remains the basic legislation concerning Indian affairs
Indian River: A lagoon extending about 265 km (165 mi) along the coast of east-central Florida
Indian Sari: traditional Indian women's garb
Indian Territory: A region and former territory of the south-central United States, mainly in present-day Oklahoma. It was set aside by the government as a homeland for forcibly displaced Native Americans in 1834. The western section was opened to general settlement in 1889 and became part of the Oklahoma Territory in 1890. The two territories were merged in 1907 to form the state of Oklahoma. an area of land west of the Mississippi River in the US, mainly in the state of Oklahoma, to which many Native Americans were forced to move in the middle of the 19th century. The land was later taken back from them by the US government. Trail of Tears, the. Former territory, U.S. West, including most of modern Oklahoma. The Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, Cherokee, and Chickasaw tribes were forcibly moved to this area between 1830 and 1843, and an 1834 act set aside the land as Indian country. In 1866 its western half was ceded to the U.S.; this portion was opened to white settlers in 1889 and became the Territory of Oklahoma in 1890. The two territories were united and admitted to the Union as the state of Oklahoma in 1907
Indian Wars: the wars in the US between white Europeans and Native Americans in the 18th and 19th centuries. The fighting increased after 1830, when the government began to force Native American tribes to leave their land and live on reservations (=special areas of land kept separate for Native Americans) . By 1880, most of the fighting had ended
Indian almond: An Asiatic tree (Terminalia catappa) widely cultivated and naturalized in the tropics and having fruit with edible seeds. Also called myrobalan, tropical almond
Indian berry: {i} type of climbing plant
Indian bread: Any of various plants, such as the breadroot, having edible parts used by certain Native American peoples for food
Indian citizen: {i} legal citizen of India (country in southern Asia)
Indian club: n. A bottle-shaped wooden club swung in the hand for gymnastic exercise
Indian corn: {i} type of corn first developed by the American Indians
Indian fig: {i} treelike cactus native to central Mexico with large yellow flowers that bears a red fruit; juicy and red fruit fo the Indian fig
Indian file: single file, single line
Indian giver: One who gives something to another and then takes or demands the gift back
Indian hemp: Cannabis
Indian hemp: plant native to America; east Indian variety of hemp, cannabis
Indian ink: {i} black ink used for painting and calligraphy
Indian law: Legal practices and institutions of India. Indian law draws on a number of sources, beginning with the customs of the ancient Vedas and later accretions of Hindu law, which largely concern social matters such as marriage and succession. After the Arab invasions of the 8th century, Islamic law (see Sharah) was introduced in some areas, particularly in the north. English common law became the residual law in jurisdictions under British colonial control, while the Portuguese and French used their own laws in their colonies. Since independence (1947), India has aimed at developing a unified civil code and updating its criminal code
Indian mustard: An annual plant (Brassica juncea) in the mustard family, having yellow flowers, petiolate leaves, and oil-rich seeds. Also called brown mustard
Indian paintbrush: Any of various partly parasitic plants of the genus Castilleja, having spikes of flowers surrounded by showy, brightly colored bracts. Also called painted cup. or paintbrush Any plant of the genusCastilleja(snapdragon family), which contains about 200 species of partially or wholly parasitic wildflowers that obtain nourishment from the roots of other plants. The small, tubular, two-lipped flowers are surrounded by brightly coloured upper leaves, giving the plant the appearance of having been dipped in a pot of red, orange, yellow, pink, or white paint
Indian philosophy: Any of the numerous philosophical systems developed on the Indian subcontinent, including both orthodox (astika) systems, namely, the Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta schools of philosophy, and unorthodox (nastika) systems, such as Buddhism and Jainism. The history of Indian philosophy may be divided into three periods: the prelogical (to the beginning of the Christian era), the logical (1st-11th century), and the ultralogical (11th-18th century). What Dasgupta calls the prelogical stage covers the pre-Mauryan and the Mauryan periods ( 321-185 BC) in Indian history. The logical period begins roughly with the Kusanas (1st-2nd century AD) and was developed most fully in the Gupta era (3rd-5th century) and in the age of imperial Kanauj (7th century). In the 19th century, newly founded universities introduced Indian intellectuals to Western thought, particularly British empiricism and utilitarianism. Indian philosophy in the early 20th century was influenced by German idealism. Later Indian philosophers made significant contributions to analytic philosophy
Indian pipe: A waxy white or sometimes pinkish saprophytic woodland plant (Monotropa uniflora) having scalelike leaves and a solitary nodding flower. Nongreen herbaceous plant (Monotropa uniflora) that is saprophytic (living on the remains of dead plants). Clusters grow in moist, shady, wooded areas of North America and Asia. The entire plant is white or grayish, occasionally pink, and turns black as it dries out. A single odourless, cup-shaped flower droops from the tip of a stalk 6-10 in. (15-25 cm) tall. The leaves, which lack chlorophyll and do not perform photosynthesis, are small scales. The name reflects the resemblance of this plant to a miniature Indian peace pipe with its stem stuck in the ground
Indian pony: A small hardy horse of western North America, often used for crossbreeding
Indian pudding: A pudding consisting of milk, cornmeal, egg, and molasses baked for several hours in a heavy casserole
Indian red: An iron oxide used as a paint and cosmetic pigment
Indian restaurant: restaurant specializing in food that is traditionally served in India
Indian strawberry: {i} plant belonging to the rose family that has yellow flowers and inedible fruit that resembles strawberries (native to India)
Indian summer: period of unusually warm weather in the late autumn or early winter (in North America)
Indian summer: You can refer to a period of unusually warm and sunny weather during the autumn as an Indian summer
Indian tobacco: A poisonous North American plant (Lobelia inflata) having light blue to white flowers and rounded seedpods enclosed by an inflated persistent calyx
Indian tribesman: member of an American Indian tribe
Afro-Indian: Pertaining to both Africa and India
Another evidence of early Afro-Indian trade relations is to be found in the work of the Greco-Egyptian monk Cosmos Indicopleustes who wrote, as cited by Pankhurst (1972:10), in the early sixth century that Barbaria, probably Somalia, had substantial trade with India and Ceylon.
Afro-Indian: A person described by both African and South Asian or East Indian (especially from India) ancestry or culture
Ngema used his song to initiate what he called a constructive discussion about conflicts separating Zulus and Afro-Indians.
Afro-Indian: Having both African and indigenous American ancestry or other attributes, whether of people, cultures, cuisine, language, and so on
Despite the decline of Indian slavery, throughout the eighteenth century South Carolina newspapers frequently advertised for runaway Indian and Afro-Indian slaves.
Afro-Indian: Having both African and South Asian or East Indian (especially from India) ancestry or other attributes, whether of people, cultures, cuisine, language, and so on
Afro-Indian settlements were established at least since the early 16th century onwards. Through migration of ex-slaves and free Africans within India, new settlements arose, such as that in the hilly district of Uttara Kannada.
Afro-Indian: A person described by both African and indigenous American ancestry or culture
In a recent account of the last of the unconquered Seminoles, who are still living in the Everglades of Florida, I noticed reference to an Afro-Indian who apparently holds a position among these people corresponding to that of a sheriff, since he is described as executioner of the tribe.
American Indian: Relating to the indigenous peoples of the Americas or their languages
American Indian: A member of some indigenous peoples of the Americas, especially the United States, but excluding the Inuit, Yupik, and Aleuts
American Indian: An indigenous person from the United States
Anglo-Indian: of, relating to, or between England, or Britain, and India
Anglo-Indian: a person from the Anglo-Indian community (a distinct community originating in India with ancestry from several European and Indian ethnic groups)
Anglo-Indian: a person of English or British citizenship or ancestry living in India (historical)
Asian Indian: A citizen of Asian descent with ancestors in India
Bogo-Indian: Of or pertaining to a particular version of the Indian defense, characterised by the moves d4 Nf6, c4 e6, Nf3 Bb4+ in algebraic chess notation
British Indian Ocean Territory: a UK overseas territory in the middle of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Indonesia; created in 1965; currently used as a joint US/UK military base
East Indian: A native or inhabitant of the Malay Archipelago, Sri Lanka, or India
East Indian: Of or pertaining to the people, products, or culture of Southeast Asia, particularly the Malay Archipelago, Sri Lanka, or India
East Indian Catholic: Of or pertaining to the those original inhabitants of Mumbai, Salsette Island and Thane converted to Catholicism and their descendants
East Indian Catholics: plural form of East Indian Catholic
Mission Indian: A Native American who lived in any one of the Catholic Missions of Alta California
Prior to the American conquest of California 1846-1848, some of the secularized Mission Indian families obtained formal Mexican land grants.
Mission Indian: A Native American who lived in one of the Catholic Missions in Southern California
What are to-day known as the Mission Indians are those Shoshonean and Yuman peoples who occupy the portion of southern California which lies between the principal mountain ranges and the sea.
Nimzo-Indian: Of or pertaining to a particular version of the Indian defense, characterised by the moves d4 Nf6, c4 e6, Nc3 Bb4 in algebraic chess notation
North American Indian: A member of one of the indigenous peoples of North America (but not a member of the Aleut, Inuit, Metis, or Yupik)
North American Indian: Of or related to the indigenous peoples of the Americas (but not the Aleut, Inuit, Metis, or Yupik)
North Indian: Of or pertaining to North India, its people, culture or languages
North Indian: Native or resident of North India
Red Indian: American Indian
South Indian: Of or pertaining to South India, its people, culture or languages
South Indian: Native or resident of South India
West Indian: a person from the West Indies
West Indian: of or from the West Indies
American Indian: {i} North American Indian, member of any of the aboriginal peoples inhabiting North and South America, Native American, Amerindian; any of the several languages spoken by the Native Americans
American Indian: American Indian people or things belong to or come from one of the native peoples of America. An American Indian is someone who is American Indian. In principle, American Indian can apply to all native peoples throughout the Americas except the Eskimos, Aleuts, and Inuits, but in practice it is generally restricted to the peoples of the United States and Canada. For native peoples in the rest of the hemisphere, usage generally favors Indian by itself or, less frequently, the contractions Amerindian or Amerind. See Usage Note at Native American. another name for a Native American (=someone who belongs to one of the races that lived in North America before Europeans arrived). or Native American or Amerindian Any member of the various aboriginal peoples of the Western Hemisphere, with the exception of the Eskimos (Inuit) and the Aleuts. Though the term Native American is today often preferred over American Indian, particularly in the U.S., many Native American peoples continue to prefer American Indian (or Indian). In Canada the name First Nation is preferred. The ancestors of the American Indians were nomadic hunters of northeast Asia who migrated over the Bering Strait land bridge into North America probably during the last glacial period (20,000-30,000 years ago). By 10,000 BC they had occupied much of North, Central, and South America. See also Anasazi culture; Andean civilization; Clovis complex; Eastern Woodlands Indian; Folsom complex; Hohokam culture; Hopewell culture; Mesoamerican civilization; Mississippian culture; Mogollon culture; Northwest Coast Indian; Plains Indian; Pueblo Indian; Southeastern Indian; Southwest Indian; Woodland culture
American Indian Movement: organization established to protect the rights and interests of Native Americans in the USA, AIM
American Indian Movement: Civil rights organization founded in 1968, originally to help urban American Indians displaced by government programs. It later broadened its efforts to include demands for economic independence, autonomy over tribal areas, restoration of illegally seized lands, and protection of Indian legal rights and traditional culture. Some of its protest activities involved violence and were highly publicized (see Wounded Knee). Internal strife and the imprisonment of some leaders led to the disbanding of its national leadership in 1978, though local groups have continued to function
American Indian languages: Languages spoken by the original inhabitants of the Americas and the West Indies and by their modern descendants. They display an extraordinary structural range, and no attempt to unite them into a small number of genetic groupings has won general acceptance. Before the arrival of Columbus, more than 300 distinct languages were spoken in North America north of Mexico by an estimated population of two to seven million. Today fewer than 170 languages are spoken, of which the great majority are spoken fluently only by older adults. A few widespread language families (Algonquian, Iroquoian, Siouan, Muskogean, Athabaskan, Uto-Aztecan, Salishan) account for many of the languages of eastern and interior North America, though the far west was an area of extreme diversity (see Hokan; Penutian). It is estimated that in Mexico and northern Central America (Mesoamerica), an estimated 15-20 million people spoke more than 300 languages before Columbus. The large Otomanguean and Maya families and a single language, Nahuatl, shared Mesoamerica with many smaller families and language isolates. More than 10 of these languages and language complexes still have more than 100,000 speakers. South America and the West Indies had an estimated pre-Columbian population of 10-20 million, speaking more than 500 languages. Important language families include Chibchan in Colombia and southern Central America, Quechuan and Aymaran in the Andean region, and Arawakan, Cariban, and Tupian in northern and central lowland South America. Aside from Quechuan and Aymaran, with about 10 million speakers, and the Tupian language Guaraní, most remaining South American Indian languages have very few speakers, and some face certain extinction
Anglo-Indian: An Anglo-Indian is someone who is Anglo-Indian. someone whose family is partly British and partly Indian
Anglo-Indian: An Anglo-Indian person is someone whose family is partly British and partly Indian. Anglo-Indian writer Amitav Ghosh
British Indian Ocean Territory: A British dependency comprising small islands in the western Indian Ocean. It was formed in 1965 by agreement with Mauritius and Seychelles
British Indian Ocean Territory: {i} archipelago in the Indian Ocean which is a British overseas territory
Bureau for Indian Affairs: bureau of the U.S. Department of the Interior that deals with education health and social services for Native Americans
Bureau of Indian Affairs: BIA a US government organization which is concerned with the welfare and education of Native Americans and with other legal matters concerning reservations (=areas set aside for Native Americans to live on)
Californian Indian: Any member of the various North American Indian peoples living in and around present-day California, U.S. Of the many Californian groups, most were composed of independent territorial and political units that were smaller than the average groupings of other North American Indians. Food varied with the region inhabited (coastal peoples fished, desert peoples hunted and practiced marginal agriculture, etc.), as did style of housing. The peoples of California were politically stable, sedentary, and conservative and less in conflict with one another than was usually the case in other areas of North America; neighbouring groups often developed elaborate systems of economic exchange of goods and services. The Californian Indians reached peaks of cultural attainment rarely seen among peoples depending almost wholly for subsistence on hunting, fishing, and the gathering of wild plant foods. Californian Indians had a renowned oral literature, and Californian basketwork is considered exquisite. See also Modoc; Northwest Coast Indian; Pomo; Yuman
Creek Indian War: series of battles which took place in Georgia and Alabama in 1813-1814 between the Creek Indian tribes led by Chief Tecumseh and white settlers (U.S. History)
Eastern Indian bronze: or Pala bronze Metal sculptures produced from the 9th century in the area of modern Bihar and West Bengal in India, extending into Bangladesh. Made of an alloy of eight metals and produced by lost-wax casting, they represent various divinities (e.g., Shiva, Vishnu) and are small and portable. Produced in the great Buddhist monasteries and distributed throughout South Asia, they influenced the art of Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), and Java
Eastern Woodlands Indian: Any member of the various North American Indian peoples of the largely wooded area stretching east from the Mississippi River valley to the Atlantic coastline and extending north into Canada and south as far as what are now the U.S. states from Illinois to North Carolina. The Indians in this region spoke Iroquoian, Algonquian, and Siouan languages. The heaviest population concentrations were near or along the seacoast, lakes, ponds, marshes, creeks, and rivers. There animals could be hunted, fish caught, birds taken, leaves, seeds, and roots of wild plants gathered, shellfish collected, and crops grown. Certain areas were favoured with resources not found elsewhere in the region. In certain parts of the upper Great Lakes area, wild rice (Zizania aquatica) grew in abundance, and the Menominee especially depended on it. In addition to the Menominee, Eastern Woodlands groups include the Abenaki, Woodland Cree, Delaware, Fox, Huron, Illinois, Iroquois, Mohican, Miami, Micmac, Mohawk, Mohegan, Montagnais and Naskapi, Ojibwa, Oneida, Ottawa, Pequot, Powhatan, Sauk, Seneca, Tuscarora, and Winnebago
French and Indian War: the name for several battles that took place in North America between the French and the British in the mid-18th century, before the American Revolutionary War. North American phase of a war between France and Britain to control colonial territory (1754-63). The war's more complex European phase was the Seven Years' War. Earlier phases of the quest for overseas mastery were King William's War (1689-97), Queen Anne's War (1702-13), and King George's War (1744-48). The North American dispute was whether the upper Ohio River valley was a part of the British empire or part of the French Empire; the bigger question was which national culture would dominate the heart of North America. British settlers were the majority in the coveted area, but French exploration, trade, and Indian alliances predominated. In 1754 the French ousted a British force, including a colonial militia under Col. George Washington, at Fort Necessity, Pa. Until 1757 the French continued to dominate, but in 1758 Britain increased aid to its troops and won victories at Louisbourg, Fort Frontenac, and Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh). The final British victory at the Battle of Quebec (1759) led to the fall of New France (1760). In the Treaty of Paris (1763) France ceded its North American territory to Britain
French and Indian Wars: series of wars between 1689-1763 in which England and France fought for control of North America
Indian: ind
North American Indian: American Indian, member of any of the aboriginal peoples inhabiting North and South America, Native American, Amerindian
North American Indian religions: Religious beliefs and practices of the indigenous peoples of North America. They are characterized by a conviction that spirit moves through all things, animate and inanimate, and that the living are intimately connected with the souls of the dead. They discover recognizable beings in the natural world of animals, plants, and trees, as well as in natural features such as mountains, lakes, and clouds. Because North American religions were so highly localized, it is impossible to determine how many have existed, and their beliefs have varied widely. Whereas Iroquois elders speak of a perfectly wise and good Creator who planned the universe, the Koyukon envision the creator as Raven, a trickster god who is only one of many powerful spirits. Whereas nearly all Navajo ceremonies are performed on behalf of individuals in response to specific needs, most Pueblo ceremonies are performed communally and scheduled according to the cycles of nature. However, all native North American religions share certain features: ancestral lands and locally sacred spots are important; access to some knowledge is restricted, and initiation is required to acquire it; kinship obligations are central; the oral tradition includes narratives that record human interaction with nonhuman powers; and generosity is a religious act. Contact with Europeans led to development of new religious movements, including the Ghost Dance tradition and the Native American Church. See also Mesoamerican religions
Northwest Coast Indian: Any member of the North American Indian peoples inhabiting a narrow but rich belt of coastland and offshore islands from southeast Alaska to northwestern California. A signal feature of Northwest Coast society was the emphasis on each individual's hereditary social rank. A person's position within a local group depended on his genealogical closeness to the legendary group ancestor. For food the peoples of the area depended primarily on five species of salmon; herring; oil-rich "candlefish," or eulachon; smelt; cod; halibut; and mollusks all of which were abundant. Water transport was highly important, and all groups made efficient dugout canoes. Northwest Coast woodworking was facilitated by the natural abundance of easily worked timbers, especially red cedar and redwood. Groups of the Northwest Coast include, from north to south, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, northern Kwakiutl (Heiltsuq), Bella Coola, southern Kwakiutl, Nootka, Coast Salish, Chinook, and a series of lesser divisions
Plains Indian: A member of any of the Native American peoples inhabiting the Great Plains of the United States and Canada. The Plains Indians spoke a variety of unrelated languages but shared certain cultural features such as nomadic buffalo hunting, the use of conical tepees, and a reliance on the horse in hunting and warfare. Any member of various Native American tribes that formerly inhabited the Great Plains of the U.S. and southern Canada. Plains Indians are popularly regarded as the typical American Indians. They were essentially big-game hunters, the buffalo being a primary source of food and equally important as a source of materials for clothing, shelter, and tools. Until supplanted by the white settlers from the 16th century onward, the Plains Indians occupied the area between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, which includes portions of both the United States and Canada. It is a vast grassland stretching from northern Alberta and Saskatchewan in Canada to the Rio Grande border of Texas. The Arapaho, Assiniboin, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche, Plains Cree, Crow, Hidatsa, Kiowa, Mandan, Osage, Pawnee, and Sioux are Plains Indians
Plateau Indian: Any member of various North American Indian peoples that inhabited the high plateau between the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Cascade Range on the west. The Plateau culture was not stable. By AD 1200-1300 the "classic" phase had emerged, characterized by permanent winter villages with semi-subterranean earth lodges along the main rivers and by summer camps with mat-covered conical lodges in the meadows. During the centuries that followed, the Plateau area was influenced by cultural elements from the highly specialized Northwest Coast culture. Part of this diffusion was possibly brought about by a Chinook group, the Wishram, who migrated from the coast into the Cascade Mountains. During the 18th century there were influences from the east. The Shoshone had acquired horses by that time and furnished their closest neighbours on the Plains and the Plateau with horses. Other elements of Plains culture, such as beaded dresses, warbonnets, and tepees, came with the horse. Among this group were the Coeur d'Alene, Flathead, Klamath, Kutenai, Modoc, Nez Percé, Spokan, Thompson, and Salish
Pueblo Indian: Any of the historic descendants of the prehistoric Anasazi peoples who have for centuries lived in settled pueblos in what is now northeastern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico. The contemporary pueblos are divided into eastern and western. The eastern group includes settlements along the Rio Grande in New Mexico (most notably Taos Pueblo), while the western group includes the Hopi villages of northeastern Arizona and the Zuni, Acoma, and Laguna villages of northwestern New Mexico. The original Pueblo culture was characterized by both agriculture and the hunting of deer and antelope. Today agriculture predominates. Modern Pueblo social life centres on the village. Pueblo Indians have retained their pre-Spanish way of life to a surprising degree. Even though they have added to their inventory of material goods, the basic fabric of the Pueblo social system, community of organization and native religion, with modifications only of detail, has survived
Red Indian: Native Americans who were living in North America when Europeans arrived there used to be called Red Indians. This use could cause offence
Red Indian: Native American, person of American Indian heritage
Red River Indian War: (1874-75) Uprising of Indian warriors from reservation tribes (Arapaho, Cheyenne, Comanche, Kiowa, and Kataka). After settlement of southwestern tribes on reservations in Oklahoma and Texas (1867), discontented braves broke out repeatedly to raid white travelers and settlers. An attack in 1874 killed 60 Texans. Federal troops under William T. Sherman converged on Indians concentrated in the Red River valley of Texas. Indian resistance forced 14 pitched battles with U.S. troops before the Indians' eventual surrender and return to the reservations
South American Indian religions: Religious beliefs and practices of the indigenous peoples of South America. The ancient Andean civilizations of the Chimu and the Inca had highly developed religions. The Inca religion combined complex ceremonies, animistic beliefs, belief in objects having magical powers, nature worship, and sun worship. The Incas built monumental temples, occupied by priests and Chosen Women. Priests conducted divination, and sacrifices were offered on every important occasion. Human sacrifice was offered when the need was extreme. In present-day South America, as many as 1,500 distinct native cultures have been described, and religious beliefs vary greatly. Creation mythologies are of major importance, often describing the origin of the first world and its fate as well as the creation and destruction of subsequent worlds. Ceremonial initiation into adulthood is widely practiced, both for males and females, with the initiation ceremony often acting out events from the dawn of creation. Initiations are also used to mark the ascent of individuals into positions of religious authority, with priests, diviners, and spirit mediums playing special roles. The shaman specializes in inducing states of ecstasy, controlling the passage of the soul out of and back into the body. Ritual fires, musical instruments (especially the rattle), esoteric languages, and sacred songs may be used in a theatrical performance designed to demonstrate the shaman's command of invisible powers. Christianity has come to be a strong component of folk belief among many native peoples, but it continues to be interpreted in the light of local tradition, and elements of traditional religion continue to survive. See also Mesoamerican religions
South Indian bronze: Any of the cult images that rank among the finest achievements of Indian visual art. Most of the figures represent Hindu divinities, especially various iconographic forms of the god Shiva and Lord Vishnu, with their consorts and attendants. The images were produced in large numbers from the 8th to the 16th century, principally in the Thanjavur and Tiruchchirappalli districts of modern Tamil Nadu, and maintained a high standard of excellence for almost 1,000 years. The icons range from small household images to almost life-size sculptures intended to be carried in temple processions
Southeast Indian: Any member of the aboriginal North American Indians who inhabited what is now the southeastern U.S. The Southeast was one of the more densely populated areas of native North America, having an aboriginal population conservatively estimated at 120,000. The bulk of this population resided inland, where advantage could be taken of extensive game resources, wild plant foods, and an abundance of arable land. Only the non-horticultural peoples of south Florida appear to have satisfactorily adjusted to a basically maritime way of life. Groups within this region included the Caddo, Catawba, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Natchez, and Seminole
West Indian: A West Indian is a citizen of the West Indies or a person of West Indian origin
West Indian: West Indian means belonging or relating to the West Indies, or to its people or culture
Western Indian bronze: Style of metal sculpture that flourished in India from the 6th to the 12th century and later, mainly in the area of modern Gujarat and Rajasthan states. Most of the bronzes are associated with Jainism; they include representations of saviour figures and ritual objects such as incense burners and lamp bearers. Most are small, as they were intended for private worship. They were made by lost-wax casting, and the eyes and ornaments are frequently inlaid with silver and gold
status Indian: A federally registered member of a band or First Nation, having special status under Canadian law. See Usage Note at First Nation
treaty Indian: A status Indian belonging to a band that has signed a treaty with the federal government
wooden Indian: A cigar-store Indian